Factors Affecting Essay Example for Free

Factors Affecting Essay This paper examines the factors affecting students career choice of accounting in Nigerian university. The study was conducted using the survey with a sampling population of 300 undergraduates from three universities. It has been discovered that the factors affecting students career choice of accounting are numerous but they can be group into personal, reference and job factors. The findings indicate that personal and job factors such as students interest and motivation in the subject, job prospects and high pay, performance in secondary school are the most influencing factors of students choice of accounting. In particular, male students were found to be more influenced by the reference factors than their female counterparts in the choice of accounting. The paper recommends the need for enlightenment  and counseling of the students and their wards about career choice in accounting.. Keywords: Accounting, personal factors, job-related factors, choice 1. Introduction In recent years, the declining of accounting students has become a major concern to the accounting profession (Hunt, Falgiani Intrieri, 2004). For instance, in the US the decline has been attributed to many factors such as: change in the business environment, decrease in salary level, alternative careers perceived as more attractive to students, misunderstanding and lack of information related to the accounting career (Albrecht Sack,2000). In Nigeria, the choice of accounting tends to rank among other professional courses like law, medicine, engineering ,economics etc. Although many researchers have considered the factors affecting students career choice in accounting, there is dearth of researches in relation to accounting in Nigeria. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to examine the factors which influence students choice of accounting in Nigerian universities and determine whether there are significant differences between male and female accounting students in the choice of accounting. The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section two reviews the relevant literature on the factors.Section three is the methodology adopted. The data analysis and research findings are documented in Section four and the overall conclusions regarding these results are presented in Section five. 2. Literature review There have been many researches carried out in both developing and developing countries to identify factors influencing students choice of accounting. Some of the factors considered were subjective factors such are social, cultural, sociological, psychological and personal factors. Others are the objective factors or both categories (Zhang, 2006). Factors frequently cited as determinants of students career choice are intrinsic values, financial rewards, job market and the cost-benefit. Some of these factors are long term salary possibilities, prestige of the profession, job security and starting salary. It has been found that students consider stereotype about the different careers when making their decisions .Yayla   Cengiz (2005) find respondents own choice, family, environment, interesting profession, earnings  expectations and job opportunities play a significant role in choosing an accounting career. These factors are grouped into personal, reference or and job related factors and considered in subsequent sections. 2.1 Personal Factors Many researchers have identified that the choice of accounting is influenced by the stud ents interest. For instance, Zhang (2006) finds students interest in the subject and ability very important in making choice to study accounting. Other factors like quantitative skills and intellectually challenging also influence students choices (Mladenovic,2000, Zhang, 2006).When students see accounting as interesting and enjoyable, they are more likely to choose it (Saemann Calero, 1999., Adam et al 1994., Mauldin et al, 2000).This finding was supported by results of Jackling Calero (2006) where intrinsic rewards such as enjoyment of the topics in accounting influence career in accounting. Kaur Leen (2006) establish that students choices of major is influenced by factors such as gender, race, quantitative skills, interest in the subject, expected marketability, performance in major classes, the approachability and teaching reputation of faculty member. Cohen Hanno (1993) conduct a survey of 287 students who had either declared or intended to declare themselves as accounting majors and those who had either declared or intended to declare themselves as major in a field other than accounting. The results indicated that non-accounting majors may choose accounting because they believe accounting to be too number-oriented and boring. 2.2 Reference Group Previous studies confirmed that referent group such as: parents, parents occupation, instructors in high school and friends could influence students  choice of major (Pimpa, 2007, Kim et al, 2002, Paolilo Estes 1982, Geiger Ogibly 2000, Mauldin et al, 2000, Kim et al,2002). Family plays a critical role in a childs career development (Guerra Braungart-Rieker, 1999). High school teachers and college instructors play a significant role in students final choice of business major. However, Hardin et al (2000) find high school educators to have a relatively low opinion of accounting as a career option for high school students.Similarly, parents and instructors had a strong influence on students choice of majors (Inman et al, 1989, Mauldin et al, 2000., Tan Laswad, 2006). Mauldin et al (2000) investigate the choices of accounting major and find the largest percentage of students who chose accounting as their major during the first accounting course in college (41%) followed by selection during high school (34%).They also find twelve factors that influence the students decisions to include: career opportunities, interest in the subject, instructors, money, parents, enjoyments, previous experience, life style opportunity because of the career, challenge, prestige, usefulness in rating a business and other students. Among referents, the instructor was found to be the most influential factor. 2.3 Job Related Factors Job attributes are the most important factors that influence the choice of career among undergraduates. The job related include: the job itself, compensation or security and the company or work environment (Moy Lee, 2002, Teo Poon (1994). The influencing factors are job satisfaction (Paolilo Estes,1982), higher earnings, prestige and career advancement (Kim,et al, 2002). Lowe Simons (1997) study the relative importance of 13 factors influencing the choice of business major. They find that the most important criteria influencing the choice of major business students are: future earnings, career options, initial earnings and ability/aptitude. Moreover, they find distinguishable differences among majors. For example, accounting students were influenced by external factors such as: long term earnings, initial earnings and career options whereas marketing majors highlighted interesting subject matter and management majors rated self employment opportunities highly. These findings support the results that students choice of business major are influenced by earnings, prestige and career advancement (Tan Laswad, 2006, Maudlin et al 2000, Felton et al, 1994). Noland et al (2003)  find the factors influencing major selection by accounting and information systems majors are long- term salary possibilities, prestige of the profession, job security, and starting salary; the influence of a professor, family members and difficulty of the subject matter are rated much lower. Kim et al (2002) conducted a study on business majors (accounting, finance, general business, management, marketing, management information system and double major). They discovered that the top five reasons for choosing a major were: interest in a career, good job opportunities, good fit with respondents abilities, a desire to run a business some day and projected earnings in the related career. The least selected reasons for choosing a major were the  reputation of the major at the university, the perceived quality of instruction, the parents influence, the amount and type of promotional information and the influence of friends. 2.4 Perception of Accounting Accounting education has been the subject of considerable debates since 1980s. Prior researches document that introductory accounting students have negative perception of accounting. Accounting is attractive to the students in terms of profession but the negative views regarding the nature and role of accounting persist (Fisher Murphy, 1995:58). Societys perception of the legitimacy of the accounting profession and its members is grounded in the verbal and visual images of accountants that are projected not only by accountants themselves but also by the media. How accountants are portrayed in media have a significant impact on the accounting profession. Typically, accountants have been referred to as number crunchers, focusing on numerical accuracy, routine recording and calculation methods. Abrecht Sack (2000), Cory (1992), Garner Dombrowski (1997) attribute the negative perception to misinformation or lack of information about accounting and the duties performed by accountants. To date, efforts by professional accounting bodies and firms to change the negative and inaccurate perception of accountancy and accountants have yielded limited success (Jackling Calero, 2006). Byrne Willis (2005) maintain that the public view of accountants is generally negative and that this perception might discourage potential students from studying the subject. Similarly, Cohen Hanno (1993) find that the perception of accounting as boring and excessively number- oriented might lead student to choose other majors than accounting. Furthermore, the traditional view of accounting as involving precision and order has been found to drive creative people away from the profession. In addition, many bright young people are seeking careers in professional fields other than accounting as a result of the poor image of the accounting profession (Saemann Crooker 1999, Cohen Hanno,1993).The personal image of accountants and how they market themselves are more important than the price, product and Smart.Anyone whose success depends upon or requires the cooperation of another individual or group needs a positive personal image. Unfortunately, high-quality students hardly ever perceive accountants as they perceive themselves. People regard accountants as boring, middle- aged men sitting in a back office with a calculator and a stack of flies. As a consequence, the accounting profession does not always attract high quality students. Whether a person chooses to pursue an accounting career may be determined by the image of accountants in the media. Byrne Willis (2005) find that perceptions of accounting are influenced by factual media. Mathus Fowler (2009) find that the portrayal of accountants in the media could be recalled by the sampling group. Tan Laswad (2009) in an extension of their 2006 study survey university students at the beginning and end of their degree. The comparisons between accounting and non accounting students reveal that those who intended to major in accounting generally hold positive attitudes towards the accounting profession. Tan Laswad (2009) found that a higher proportion of accounting students decide on their major  prior to university study. Therefore they recommended that the accounting profession should promote the positive aspects of accounting career not only to pre-university students but also to the public as this strategy would enhance the public profile of members of the profession. 2.5 Status of accounting compared with other professions Students are more likely to aspire to a career that is held in high esteem by society. In the Byrne Willis (2005) study, accounting students ranked accounting ranked 5th and non-accounting students ranked it 7th among ten professional courses. Irish high schools ranked accountants behind doctors, lawyers, dentists and architects as professionals. In the United States, the Gallun organization (1991) reported that both high school and university students rated the accounting profession last among six professions of law, medicine, teaching, engineering, financial planning and accounting. In a New Zealand study, the accounting profession was ranked lower in social status compared to the profession of law, medicine and engineering by high school teachers. This was also the view of high school teachers in the United States (Hardin et al, 2000) and Japan (Sagahara et al, 2006) 3. Methodology The population of interest comprised all accounting students in three (3) universities: University of Benin (UNIBEN), Igbinedion University Okada (IUO) and Ambrose Alli University (AAU). The sample size was made up of three hundred (300) full and part-time accounting students from these universities. The total number include: two hundred (200)  accounting students from UNIBEN, fifty (50) from IUO and fifty (50) students from AAU. The data for this study was mainly from the administration of questionnaire. A total of 300 questionnaires were administered and retrieved from the respondents representing a response rate of 100%.The likert scale  type close ended questions was used .The data was analysis using percentage analysis, independent t-test and regression analysis.The t-test was used to find out if there was significant difference between male and female accounting students in the choice of accounting. The descriptive statistics of the respondents is shown in table 1 below.

Supreme court of the uk

Supreme court of the uk Introduction UK has created a new Supreme Court and had transformed the judiciary authority from the House of Lords by creating a new Supreme Court in the UK; it happened first time in the history of UK this procedure was distinctive and democratic in the society. ‘‘The focal area of creating new court was that they wants the judiciary to act as independent body because before that the judges of the higher court worked both as a legislature as well as judges in the house of lords, the main reason for creating a new court was that how fair it is for the judges to work as a judges in house of lords and as a officials in the parliament because the â€Å"state invest the judiciary in both parliament and in the house of lords and it put the independency and impartially of the court at higher risk. The other prospect at that period was invented that the decision made by the law lords judges might be challenged by the court of human rights on the basis of ‘fairness that they might be not be fair enough. In June 2003 the press conference was called and the Labour party announced the plan to generate a new Final Court in the United Kingdom. The debate was quite contentious, it was shocking news mainly for the parliament and for the public because it was new judiciary establishment for everyone and the issue arose that the House of Lords existed for the last hundreds of decays and for them creating a new supreme court was dishonouring and demolishing the history. ‘‘The debate of having a new Supreme Court whose members would not be a part of house of lord considered the issue of unjust between three national legal systems. The judges in the UK has not got that strong power like the judges in the United States they got strong supremacy to refuse or declare or say no to the ‘statute if its making trouble or inconveniences in their work but in the United kingdom they havent got this power i.e. if the parliament is passing the statute and if the judge say I dont think this statute should pass because it will create a problem or may be inconvenient for us in the future. The parliament will ignore the judiciary view and will do whatever they think is better because Parliament got the highest power. Judge has a very small room to fit in they will still apply the legislation if they think its not fair So, in simple words the law lords of the highest courts has no right and power to act in accordance to their convenience. Here the subject is what made Mr Blair to separate the judiciary from the parliament. The reason Mr Blair come to this unexpected constitutional reform is the conflict of Article 6 of Human Rights Act 1998 (‘The national court cannot ignore the 1998 Act if theres a conflict between) in Article6 its stated that Every one has a ‘‘Right to a Fair Trial everyone is entitled to an independency and impartiality. So the question is how fair it is for the judiciary to work as a legislative in the parliament and as well as to perform their duty in the House of Lords as a law lords. â€Å"In 2003 the council of Europe has questioned from the British government it was a real shameful for the British government they have questioned about the position of the Lord Chancellor, Lord Irvine of Lairg, he was the senior judge and was also a cabinet minister and a speaker of upper house of legislative. Its the point of the justice and fairness its unfair for one person holds many pow ers together. We had Lord Chancellors from the 20 centuries, sudden change was quite scandalous. Now the Lord Chief Justice is replaced by the Lord Chancellor, he will be responsible to look after the work and the performances of the courts. Although the issue is not about the judges undermining expertise, performances of the work they do but its about the righteousness. ‘‘Impartiality and independency must be measured against both subjectively and objectively standards. As it is been observed in ‘‘Findlay V United Kingdom [1997]24 EHHR 221 , Where a solider has challenged the court martial procedure on the basis that the senior officer arranged a meeting, he appointed his members and the junior officer who was under his order. Had power to break up an official agreement regarding the court martial. Hereafter, again in the case of ‘‘Morris V United Kingdom (application on 38784/97) [2002] ECHR 38784/97. In this case the applicant complained to the European court of human rights on the basis that in the court martial in his case, it was a violation of his right to a fair trial in Article 6 of European Convention of Human Rights. In simple words there was no independency in the court martial, the two officers for specific purpose chosen were also in compatible with the court martial independency. The decision of the reviewing authority to change the decision of the court martial was also in compatible with independence. The third intention is the new role of the Privy Council and transferring to the Supreme Court. ‘‘Moreover they will take all the devolution cases from the Scotland, N. Ireland and Wales. Finally the New Supreme Court is officially opened on the 9th October 2009 and there will be 11 permanent law lords and the cost of the building was aprox57 million. Conclusion: − Its only a debating question, its also difficult for Great Britain to abolish its conventions. This proposed Supreme Court may disturb the whole convention and political history but on the other hand the separation of the House of Lords will give the judiciary full independency to take the decision without any outside pressure but practically it wont happened. The new Supreme Court is not as powerful as the U.S is, because British is a unitary form of Govt. It will be so difficult for Supreme Court to get high degree of place in the society. BIBLOGRAPHY http://www.justice.org.uk/images/pdfs/supreme.pdf (i) See http://medlibrary.org/medwiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom (9/12/09) V.Bodganor, Building the New Supreme court: National and Comparative Perspectives,[2005]Law Quarterly Review, p1,Westlaw. Robert.W, Robert, W. ‘The New Supreme Court and the changes on the justice system, 2006, LIMUK 292 http://www.opsi.gov.uk/ACTS/acts1998/ukpga_19980042_en_3 (4/12/09) See The new Supreme Court and the changes in the justice system, 2006 by Robert Walker S.Roger;B Ruth, A Supreme Court for the United Kingdom Policy Paper Justice Nov 2002(The separation of powers)p.3 See Findlay v United Kingdom[1997] 24 EHRR 221 , Westlaw See Morris v United Kingdom (App no 38784/97)[2002]ECHR 38784/97, Westlaw. ee by Lord Bingham of Cornhill ; The Constitution Unit Spring Lecture 2002

Negative Consequences Of Pollution

Negative Consequences Of Pollution Externalities are known as the third party effects evolving from the production and consumption of goods and services in which the third party does not receive any appropriate consumption. Externalities are the root to market failure if the pricing system does not consider the social costs and benefits of production and consumption. The provision of the incorrect quantity of goods and services to customers by the market mechanism sources a deficit in social welfare in an effective working market society ought to disperse property rights. If no individual is the owner of a specific good then nobody has an economic incentive to safeguard that good from being harmed. This is directed towards the tragedy of commons where, for instance no particular person owns the ocean or the fish in the ocean therefore the deficiency of the population of living fish is annihilated by the fishing industry. Resulting from the absence of clearly defined property rights, markets are unable to completely ac count for them, assigning prices of goods and services. Studying a scenario that lacks government intrusion, as no one owns the air, polluting industries do not raise their prices to recompense for correcting their pollution because they fail to undo air pollution and this will ultimately result in health difficulties among third parties and these third parties ought to then pay for the rectification of their health. According to the World Health Organizations three million people are killed around the world and this is attributed to outdoor air pollution (annually) by motor vehicles and industrial emissions and 1.6 million indoors from the usage of solid fuels. There exists a range of studies that estimate that 7-20% of all cancers are caused by air pollution (only). Waterborne diseases are accountable for 80% of infirmity and deaths in developing nations, claiming a childs life in every eight seconds. Contaminated water is the sole cause of the deaths of 2.1 million humans who fal l victim to diseases that are linked to contaminated water sources. Contaminated land is a severe problem in developed nations as industries and power stations dispose of heavy metals in the soil. One shocking feature of agriculture is its potential to poison land with pesticides, nitrate-rich fertilizers and faeces from cattle and this is coupled with the fact that contamination that reaches rivers harm various life-forms. To the economist the problem that arises from externalities is not that the activity occurs, but that a surplus of it occurs. To locate the market outcome we begin by using supply and demand. The market price and quantity are represented by Pmkt and Qmkt in figure 1 below However, the market outcome is not the efficient result. The supply curve illustrates only the private costs of production, mainly the costs occurred by those firms producing the good. Costs are inflicted on innocent bystanders due to negative externalities therefore it does not symbolize all costs. Therefore we draw another curve the social cost or SC curve. This diagram signifies all costs of the product including private production costs and external costs. The efficient level of outcome occurs where the demand curve and SC curve intersect which is depicted by P* and Q*. Qmkt > Q* meaning that the market produces greater levels of amounts of this good than the efficient amount, this phenomenon is known as over production. Another notification of Pmkt < P* means that the market price is less than the efficient price. Reason being that the market outcome is so inefficient is due to the fact that the private market leads suppliers to produce some units of the good (between Q* and Qmk t) whose cost of production exceeds their value to consumers. It is believed that this is true because the units of the good between Q* and Qmkt, the demand curve (measuring value to consumers) is below the SC curve (measuring all costs). The overproduction of goods with negative externalities transpires because the price of the good that the buyer does not fully cover all of the costs of producing or consuming the good. If all costs were taken into consideration, then prices of these goods would be superior and people would utilize of them. If the costs of the negative externalities, the harm from pollution were put on the good as a tax, then people would become conscious of the full cost of producing and consuming that good and the efficient amount would be the smaller amount demanded. From the above graph we can come to the conclusion about all market allocations of commodities causing pollution externalities. ie.the output of the commodity is too large, too much pollution is pro duced, the prices of products responsible for pollution are too low, as long as the costs are external, no incentives to search for ways to yield less pollution per unit of output are introduced by the market and recycling and reuse of the polluting substances are discouraged since release into the environment is so inefficiently cheap. A property right is the restricted authority to resolve how a specific resource is used whether a resource is owned by government or individuals (Alchian, 2008). Property rights must clearly be defined, their use must be scrutinized and possession of rights enforced (Alchian, 2008). Transaction costs are the costs of defining, monitoring and enforcing these rights (Alchian, 2008). There are four different types of property rights mainly open access, common property and private property (Pearce, 1989). Open-access property does not have an owner, is non-excludable, that is no one can prohibit another individual from making use of it, and is non-rival, the use of the property by one individual will not restrict of prevent its use at the same time by another individual. Open- access property unsupervised and access to it is not restricted. The existence of open-access property arose from the fact that the ownership of the property has never been established, either because the state has legislated it, because no efficient controls are in place, or it is not considered feasible because the cost of exclusion overshadows the benefits. Open-access property can be converted by the state into private, common or state property through legislature, clearly defining rights and enforcing them. Examples of open-access resources which the state may convert include the atmosphere and ocean fisheries. State property, is owned by everyone however, access to the property and the use of it is controlled by the state, example a national park. Common property is controlled by a group of individuals, who are responsible for access to, use of and exclusion from the property. Private property grant strict control to the owner, who has control over the use, management and access of property, the owners may prevent another individual, if they want to, from using the property, and they can also restrict the simultaneous use of the property. The polluter-pays-principle and victim-pays- principle is dependant on the provision of property rights for environmental goods. The costs of pollution are to be borne out of those who instigated it stated by the polluter-pays-principle. Its goal is to determine how the costs of pollution prevention and control must be assigned: the polluter must pay. Its objective is the internalization of environmental externalities of economic activities so prices of goods and services completely depict the costs of production. Bugge (1996) acknowledged four types of ppp; economically, it promotes efficiency; legally it promotes justice; it promotes harmonization of international environmental policies; as well as it defines how to allocate costs within a state. The ownership of environmental goods rights are undefined and by default it is the polluters that are usually favoured. If no appropriate bylaws are put in place to ban polluting activities and property rights are indeterminate, polluters will implicitly have the upper hand. As these polluting activities are aggravated and societys welfare becomes more pretentious, the victims of these activities will band together to maintain their right to a protected environment. This will eventually lead to regulation being put into practice which will shift property rights towards victims until equilibrium ie. between optimal pollution and optimal pollution abatement is reached. This equilibrium is shown by the intersection between the marginal abatement cost and the marginal damage cost schedules, .Coase illustrates this result by using the example of a farmer cultivating his land and another who breeds cattle that needs that needs land to graze on. Both individuals have adjoining land which is not enclosed. There are two possible consequences depending on how property rights are allocated; case1, the law is in favour of the farmer breeding cattle. Nothing prevents the cattle from grazing on the other land. The latter will have an incentive to bargain with the farmer and try to get him to reduce the damage done to his crops by reducing the herd. Case 2; the law is in favour of the farmer with crops. The farmer with the cattle is responsible for the damage his herd causes to others crops and must pay for these damages. It is in his interest to negotiate to try and reduce his costs. The effectiveness of this bargaining process rests on assumptions regarding the economic definition of environmental property rights. Tietenberg (1992) states that the structure of the property rights is characterized as follows: universitality, all existing resources are allocated; exclusivity, all costs and benefits from the possession or use of resources are attributed to the holders of the r ights either directly or indirectly; transferability, all rights are transferable through voluntary exchange between agents; protection, property rights are protected from voluntary or expropriation. According to the coase theorem everyone has perfect information, consumers and producers are price-takers, there is a costless court system for establishing, producers maximize profits and consumers maximize utility, there are no income and wealth effects as well as no transaction costs. The initial allocation of property rights does not matter for efficiency but if any of the conditions do not hold then the initial assignments of property rights matter. When property rights are apportioned to polluters, the victims of pollution will be enthused to bargain. If the victims are in possession of the property rights then polluters will instigate negotiation. Optimal pollution and optimal abatement must be taken into consideration to determine the situation where rights are optimally allocated. Figure 2 The above diagram depicts the process. The vertical axis illustrates the level of costs involved and the horizontal axis depicts the level of reduction in pollution. MDC is the marginal external costs and the MDC illustrates the level of reduction in pollution. The equilibrium is determined at Z* where MRC intersects the MDC curve. The polluting firms will produce its maximum level of output when there is no reduction in pollution. In contrast the level of production will be the lowest when there is a complete reduction in pollution. This figure can be linked up back to the preceding cases in respect to the establishment of property rights. At Z0 the level of pollution is maximized hence there is no reduction in pollution. This implies that that both the polluter and the victims are given the rights. At the reduction in pollution is at its maximum hence the rights are given to victims. When the polluters activity influence the welfare of a sufferer an external cost is generated and the sufferer should be compensated. Ronald Coase (1960) pointed out that sufferers and polluters are incorporated in negotiating incentives of an efficient level of unfavorable impacts regarding of the assignment of rights when the transaction cost is negligible. The illustration above portrays the output level a firm will operate at (Qà Ã¢â€š ¬), where profits are maximized, however the social optimum is at Q*. When the sufferer has the property rights, the polluter does not have the right to pollute and the sufferer has the right not to be polluted. The sufferer chooses not to have any pollution at the starting point and at the origin the two parties begin to bargain. If they moved to d, the polluter would obtain Oabd in profit and the sufferer would lose Ocd. There is a chance that bargaining could occur as OABD is greater than OCD. The polluter will make a proposition of compensation to the sufferer since Oabd is greater than Ocd and less than Oabd. If this bargain happens, there is a movement to d which is known as a Pareto optimal allocation as one party is better off, (sufferer lost Ocd but gained more in compensation) and no party is worse off (polluter still has net profit). A move to the right of Q* is not plausible because pollut ers gains are less than the victims losses. Therefore the polluting firm wont compensate the sufferer to move beyond Q*. Now if the property rights are assigned to the polluter, start at Qà Ã¢â€š ¬ because its the point at which the polluter can take advantage of his right to use the environment to dispose of his waste products. It is again possible for the two parties to bargain and move from Qà Ã¢â€š ¬ back to f. Here the sufferer can compensate the polluter to give up a certain amount of economic activity or output level. The sufferer is willing to tolerate a loss fhi Qà Ã¢â€š ¬ if the move does not take place and will offer an amount less than this to get the polluter to cut back pollution. The polluter is prepared to accept an amount greater than fgQà Ã¢â€š ¬. i.e. the profits will be relinquished as long as there is a probability of bargaining between the polluter and sufferer the market will take us to the social optimum ie Q. The commons can be referred to as a society composed of the population. According to Hardin the idea that everyone born with equivalent rights to the commons in sharing resources, concurrently with overpopulation will destroy the commons, therefore tragedy of the commons. Overpopulation and pollution are the contributing factors that facilitate the commons not being sustainable. The South African population was 40.6 million in 1996 and is persistently growing at 2 percent per year. A continuation of this trend by the year 2035 will result in 82 million of the inhabitants relying on an equivalent level of natural resources which are already under strain in sufficiently meeting its demands, therefore escalating the production of pollution and waste. The burdens of overpopulation on natural resources uniting with cooperate greed leads to detrimental consequences. A case in point is one of the Toxic water rising below Johannesburg. Twenty miles North West of Johannesburg, the water from the spring runs blood red. It is toxic, highly acidic and bursting with heavy metals, so foul those animals in the Kruderdorp Game reserve downstream say no to drinking the water causing them to die of thirst therefore not one living organism is able to endure this venomous water. Millions of gallons of this toxic water lie beneath Johannesburg, a municipality with a population of nearly four million citizens. The water is rises at fifty feet a month. If this persists, in roughly two years time subterranean parking garages will be filled up with this deadly red water. Tunnels for electrical cables and underground railway stations will overflow. Unnatural crimson water pours out from the ground leading into the suburbs and eventually fleeing into the east of Johannesburg. Due to Johannesburgs gold rush, mining companies extort enormous holes under its city and s uburbs. When it rains much is soaked up in the earth and the water becomes toxic when combined with heavy metals underground. Terry McCarthy, a geology professor of the university Witwatersrand warn that existing mining operations in other parts of South Africa were on their part to destruction and it would eventually poison some of Johannesburgs main drinking water resources, causing future generations to be imposed with greater costs of the Vaal Dam and Vaal river. The tragedy of the commons relates to almost every commonly held property. Individuals and firms accept a hundred percent of the gains of easy disposal of waste into air or water but only sustain a fraction of these negative impacts of pollution. It is therefore necessary for government to control pollution, providing incentives to prevent pollution or inflicting penalties should pollution occur. Another example is that of national parks where the parks can be accessed by everyone without limits to visitation. As the number of visits multiply degradation of parks become more plausible. The finite number of parks combined with increasing visitation and population growth makes conservation efforts difficult. In order to avoid the tragedy of the commons population control is a need. Hardin proposes that laws, legislators, beuros and watchers who watch the beuros to legislate and enforce laws are the key elements of controlling the population in the commons. He also emphasize that conscience and sense of guilt are not enough to restrict the population. People can freely make choices between the options offered by the laws, but are compelled to choose the options that brings themselves under control. Reason being if they choose the unrestrained option they will have to pay more prices or run more risks of losing something valuable. For example people believe that if the accept compulsory taxes because they understand voluntary taxes would favor the conscienceless people who dont pay taxes at all. Hardin ends with establishing that education can put an end to the tragedy of the commons. There are numerous reasons as to why a coasian solution may not work; ie. transaction costs, state of competition, the free- rider problem, identifying polluters and victims and people unwilling to trade transaction cost include information and measurement costs, negotiation costs, contracting (legal costs) and monitoring and enforcing costs. The cost of setting up the contract between polluter and victim becomes excessive because of the countless polluters and sufferers. The many questions become controversial including who is suffering, whose polluting and by how much? How much will resolve the bribe or payment and will defer among individuals. A coasian solution works well when there is perfect competition, on the contrary it is feasible to get such a solution under imperfect competition but the analysis is much more complex. Due to environmental goods being classed as public goods, the free- rider problem poses a dilemma as the provision of public goods would not be sufficient if left to the private sector. Since convincing everyone to play a part in diminishing incentives to cheating on agreements remain intricate. Predicted by the game theory models, bargaining would make vulnerable. If there are clearly defined property rights and contracts are drawn up then those rights that are allocated to may be unwillingly to trade. Some government intervention is needed in environmental conflicts by inflicting either liability or property rules. Property rules stipulate the allocation of the entitlement. Example entitlements include the right to pollute the air or on the other hand, the right to fresh, clean air. When applying the property rules the court decides on which right is paramount and places an injunction against the infringement of that right. The Coase Theorem involves establishing property rights as a means to solve the creation of externalities. This essay has been based on the negative externalities of pollution, the formation of property rights, bargaining in addition to a critique of the tragedy of the commons. It has been found that although there are no government interventions in a free market economy, courts are still required to intervene in the establishment of the property rights. Furthermore it has included a discussion on the main consequences of over pollution and ways in which government could solve this problem. It went on to give reasoning as to why the coasian solutions may be falsified which was illustrated by examples throughout the essay.

The Effects of Stigma and Labeling on Mental Illness Patients and Their

Mental Illness, that name conjures up a vast array of frightening images in the minds of the general public and media; an unfair image that is stigmatizing for the sufferer. The stigma is also pervasive in the mental health field, where patients who receive treatment are sometimes treated unfairly by the practitioners, who are supposed to help them in the first place. This is what my paper will discuss, the effects of stigma and labeling on patients and their families. I have culled many sources from scholarly papers, that back up my claim. I will describe what I thought of about the articles and how they pertain to the main points I am trying to make. In our society today, mental health treatment is considered to be much more humane and scientific, rather than the barbaric treatment given to mental health patients in the past. Although the psychiatric profession has considerably advanced, there seems to be a growing consensus from many mental health consumers and families, that the stigma of the past is still present in the treatment of mental illness today. It is considered inhumane to deprive someone in getting adequate treatment for their mental illness, but that is what is happening to many disabled mental health consumers. The majority of mental health consumers cannot afford to get the advanced treatment that is available to them, unless they either have enough money or good insurance coverage; most however do not. It is usually impossible to get into the specialty psychiatric clinics, like Stanford and UCLA, where treatment is very advanced and up-to date, therefore consumers have to be treated often within the county's mental health system; which is very rated very poor. In the article published by: Sharon Bowland, ... ...ple with mental disorders. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 43(3), 183-200. doi:10.1080/00048670802653349. Kondrat, D., & Teater, B. (2009). An anti-stigma approach to working with persons with severe mental disability: Seeking real change through narrative change. Journal of Social Work Practice, 23(1), 35-47. doi:10.1080/02650530902723308. Rao, H., Mahadevappa, H., Pillay, P., Sessay, M., Abraham, A., & Luty, J. (2009). A study of stigmatized attitudes towards people with mental health problems among health professionals. Journal of Psychiatric & Mental Health Nursing, 16(3), 279-284. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2850.2008.01369.x. Wesselmann, E., & Graziano, W. (2010). Sinful and/or possessed? Religious beliefs and mental illness stigma. Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology, 29(4), 402-437. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier database.

Euthanasia: A Complex Issue Essay -- Assisted Suicide Essays

Euthanasia is a very controversial issue around the world. Many doctors have conflicting opinions when it comes to this topic. â€Å"Euthanasia is the killing of someone through either an active or passive way of someone who suffers from an illness which arouses pity and who will never get better when asked by either the person himself/herself or his/her friends† (Nevzat). Euthanasia has been around for centuries. When Michael Stolberg narrates the story of Ambroise Parà © in â€Å"Two Pioneers of Euthanasia around 1800,† he informs us that euthanasia was used as early as 1536. In the sad anecdote about the soldier, Stolberg opens the eyes of many to the ways euthanasia is performed. Not all acts of euthanasia are quite this severe. In 1800, Physician Carl Georg Theodor Kortum had various reports of terminally ill patients bound to die a horrible death if not for him. He explained some patients went through a period of not even being able to swallow. They stayed in this period until they slowly lost their sense. Some patients continued to live for another forty-eight hours until finally passing. He explained, â€Å"The only thing one could desire was that a gentle death end the patients suffering† (Stolberg). Some say Kortum could be considered the first physician to publically justify and advise active euthanasia. He saw euthanasia as helping terminally ill patients become comfortable again. Christian Ludwig Mursinna was a very well respected surgeon during this time, as well. Mursinna was the head surgeon at Charità © hospital in Berlin and a professor of surgery. Like Kortum, Mursinna also publically admitted to shortening the suffering of one of his patients. After the patient asked... ...a: Journal of Death & Dying 54.2 (2006): 135-145. Professional Development Collection. EBSCO. Web. 13 Jan. 2011. Stolberg, Michael. â€Å"Two Pioneers of Euthanasia around 1800.† Hastings Center Report. 19-22. Hastings Center, 2008. Health Source – Consumer Edition. EBSCO. Web. 13 Jan. 2011. Stolinsky, M.D, David C. â€Å"Assisted Suicide of the Medicle Profession.† Stolinsky.com. 20 Mar. 2006. Web. 26 Jan. 2011. "Palliative Care vs. Hospice Care - Definition | Get Palliative Care." Palliative Care. Web. 27 Feb. 2011. . Whitney, Simon N., Bryan W. Brown, Howard Brody, Kirsten H. Alcser, Jerald G. Bachman, and Henry T. Greely. "Views of United States Physicians and Members of the American Medicle Association House of Delegates on Physician-assisted Suicide." Journal of General Internal Medicine 16 (20001): 290-96. Print.

Level 2 Unit 6.1.3 Essay

There are lots of different ways of gaining further qualifications, skills or work experience – and the range of options is growing. You could: †¢continue in full-time education, either at school or college †¢continue your learning through work-based training If you’re aged 16 or 17 and coming towards the end of a school or college course, the ‘September Guarantee’ means that you’ll definitely be able to continue learning. Everyone in this age group due to leave education is guaranteed an offer of a place on an appropriate course – and information, advice and guidance to help weigh up their options. Staying in full-time education There is a much wider range of subjects and qualifications that students are able to choose from up until now. As well as A levels, there is a growing range of work-related qualifications. Selected schools and colleges are also offering the Diploma qualification for 14 to 19-year-olds. Depending on what type of study is taken there is an option to stay on at school, or go to a sixth form college, specialist, college or further education college. Students with a disability or learning difficulty, should check how there school or college could provide extra help to ensure that they are assessed fairly. Learning at work If ready to start work then it’s important to pick a job that offers planned training leading to a nationally recognised qualification. There are lots of ways to improve skills and get qualifications, from Apprenticeships to the ‘Entry to Employment’ scheme. Apprenticeships As employees, apprentices earn a wage and work alongside experienced staff to gain job-specific skills. Off the job, usually on a day-release basis, apprentices receive training to work towards nationally recognised qualifications. Anyone living in England, over 16 years-old and not in full-time education can apply. Apprenticeships can take between one and four years to complete depending on the level of Apprenticeship, the apprentices’ ability and the industry sector. The minimum salary is ? 2. 60 per hour; however, many apprentices earn significantly more.

Effects of Music on the Growth of Mung Beans

CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS This chapter presents the summary of finding the generalization of the conclusion and the recommendation for the further improvement of the study. I. Summary of Findings 1. Music affects the growth of Mung beans. As established in the experiment and based on the data gathered, music has a great effect on the growth of Mung beans. The varying degree of effect is dependent on the type or tempo of music to be played. 2.In general, music helps in the growth of plants. It hastens the growth of plants. As we conducted and observed our experiment, we noticed that classical music helps the Mung beans' growth. Plants exposed to rock music grew slower than those exposed to classical music; however, they grew faster than those exposed to no music. 3. The growth of the green variety of Mung beans is faster than those of the yellow variety in any of the environment they were subjected to.II. Conclusions 1. Music affects the growth of Mung beans as we observed the set-ups. The different aspects that we have observed where music was involved were the plant's height and the number of leaves produced. 2. Music helps the Mung beans' growth and does not hinder their development. 3. Music, more specifically the classic music, has effects on the growth of Mung beans especially on the growth of the green variety. III. Recommendations 1.As we have proven through the data gathered that music hastens the growth of plants, we recommend promoting the use of music in planting and other agricultural activities. This can be done through discussions in the different fora to bring to the awareness of the authorities and the agricultural sector the benefits of music in planting. 2. We recommend that in the utilization of music for plant growing, you should use classical music in order for you to grow your plants faster. 3. We recommend that further study be conducted to validate the findings of this paper.